Personal Theory Paper Essay Example for Free

Personal surmisal Paper EssayAbstractthither are many a(prenominal) ways is which we jakes build and father our own theories ab come forth electric shaver organic evolution but the way we do our own theories will significantly affect the way we guide and teach kidren. My unusual individualized possibleness about kidskin reading is that children should be guided and treated with respect and dignity. This analyze will explain my own face-to-face theory or theories that I would use to greatly guide and help children along the way, I believe that these that I am about to mention are the ones that I feel I would really use later on as I pursue my profession in the Child development Field. A incontrovertible approach to guidance makes children and others feel confident, happy, and pleasant. A positive approach does not include shaming, humiliation, ridicule, pressure to compete, nor is it punitive, impatient, mean, or bossy.Personal surmisal 3Personal Theory PaperHavi ng your own soulfulnessal theory means how you will guide children into success in their lifes later on. Making our own personal theory helps us understand, predict, explain and control that reality. Thy are mostly verbal but they can withal be mathematical or illustrative. Having our own personal theories really helps learn how children will learn and develop. These several questions that I will discuss are questions that often children caregivers ask themselves1. How do you view the social class of development is it Continuous or Discontinuous? 2. Is there one course or many courses of development that would characterize all children? 3. Do genetic or environmental factors play a greater role in development?Highlighting these major questions will give us an understanding as to how children develop and move to the changes around them.1Theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalise thinking. Depending on the context, the results might for example include generalized explanations on how nature works, or even how divine or metaphysical matters are thought to work.How do you view the course of development is Continuous or Discontinuous? To me how I view the course of development is it depends on the childs physical and psychological development. On the Wikipedia article about Child Development in the persistency section of the article I read this Many aspects of developmental change are continuous and do not display noticeable milestones of change. Continuous developmental changes, like growth in stature, involve fairly gradual and predictable progress toward adult characteristics. (www.wikipedia.com). Although scientists and children caregivers eat an interest in identification of developmental milestones, many aspects of developmental change are continuous. An example of a discontinuous development is Freuds Psycho Sexual stages of development is theorized that children systematically move through oral, anal, phallic, and latency s tages earlier reaching mature adult sexuality in the genital stage.The same is mentioned for Eriksons theory of development and Piagets stages of cognitive development. Theorists who believe children grow continuously believe that kids incessantly add in the raw lessons and skills on top of old lessons and though parents cannot see it all the time with their own eyes, children are growing all the time repair in front of them. Their bodies make new cells. Their minds learn new skills as they play and interact with other people everyday. On the other hand children who grow Discontinuously believe that children grow in stages as they seem to develop chunks of abilities and to experience events at certain times in life.Is there one course or many courses of development that would characterize all children? In my view I believe that both one or many courses in development exist. There is not only one course or just many course, in a preschool setting a teacher or caregiver is transac tion with children from different backgrounds, culture, and developmental differences physically, emotional, and psychologically. Its important for a teacher or caregiver to really observe and understand if each child has only one course or many courses of development. When a developmental theory has only one course then it is only said to follow one path, but when a developmental theory involves many courses then it has unique paths for particular individuals across popular contexts.(www.wiki-answers.com/Q/Child_development_One_course_of_development_or_many).Do Genetic or Environmental factors play a greater role in Development? genetic science and the environment shape the development of a human. This fact is mostly known by the idea of nature versus nurture. Scientists have been questioning which of these factors influence upon the various aspects of personal growth. A persons physical development is strongly affected by their genes inherited from their parents. Parents genes pre determine the limits of an individuals height and other characteristics. (www.teenink.com/opinion). Genetics can have a powerful influence on development, but experiences are similarly important. For example, while the genetic code contains the information a child is influenced by their surroundings. If a child grows up in a homePersonal Theory 6 that is well off, they whitethorn not appreciate the grueling work that goes into earning a dollar because everything was given to them. On the other hand if a child grows up in poverty he or she may not wish things that have no significance in their life. Childs growth starts right away and does not end until the child is ready. As a child grows up he or she will learn to think for herself, become aware of themselves, learn to reason, and master language. The environment plays mostly an important part in the childs skill enhancement in so many ways. First there are hereditary traits that can affect a child. The way they talk, walk, thei r psyche, cognitive thinking, and much can be due to the environment.My Own two Major theories of DevelopmentTwo major theories that I have experienced while interacting with children is self-direction in which it is the ability to control ones own expression, to think for oneself was a basic aim by Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget which have mostly to do with values of liberty and liberty. I have personally come across this because when interacting with children I like to teach them to be more independent with themselves, to be able to do the things by themselves and if they already tried several times and they still need help on doing something then they can rely on me for help.I have a younger sister who I have been helping my mom take care of ever since my sister was three age old (now she is eight eld old) she does like to do things by herself independently but now that she is growing up, I have noticed that she is always wanting someone to do the things for her. alike(p) there are times in the mornings when she feels lazy to do her own bed so she always tends to ask for my help only even though she also has other older sisters and an older brother she still only asks for my help, sometimes it is kind of annoying for me when she only asks for my help it almost seems like if I was her only sister. I am tend to loose my patience at times but that is when I Personal Theory 7 say to myself to compose down and realize that she likes to spend quality time with me, even if sometimes it is annoying. I want her to rely on me for help but what I want her to realize is that she also has to do her own things. When she is in a tight situation then that is when she can come to me for advice. My other theory is the imitation experience, when a child sees someone clapping then after seeing the grownup clap the child claps back just the same way the grownup did it. fate a child read picture books can help develop schemas in child development. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which are used both to understand and respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed. (www.simplypsychology.com/piaget.html). For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, or during food, eating it and paying the bill. This is an example of a schema called script. Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from entrepot and apply it to the situation. The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this-especially those used by infants. He described how as a child gets older-his or her schemas become more legion(predicate) and elaborate.An example of an initial schema is when the teacher is showing the children how a quest for looks from a picture book, therefore the children begin to develop an understanding of what a dog looks like just by looking at the picture book. Experience in practicing the skill can be provided by adults at strategic moments when the child shows readiness, thus enhancing development. Expert teachers are sensitive to childrens readiness in many learning domains. Children seek ways to gain experience when they find a new skill fascinating. (Hildebrand pg. 29) I would watch children climb up and down a mountain when they learning to climb.When observing I would also listen to the childrens conversations, to me it is Personal Theory 8 interesting listening to the way children use words to connect them into sentences that are filled with fantasy, imagination and curiousness all over listening to their conversations also makes me wonder sometimes if they are imitating a grown-up from their own family or if it comes from their own active imagination, it almost seems like they have an inner drive to excel. I would never like to hinder a child from saying anything they wish to say but I would also watch carefully that any child does not swear because a young childrens mind is always active and open and when they are toddlers everything the grownups say or do they will want to do it also because they are at a period where they want to try everything you do also, so we as their caregivers have to be extra careful what we say or do because what we do or say will greatly affect the child in the present and later on in their life.Conclusion take down though I have never had professional early child development teaching experience I know that in the several years of taking care of my sister I have at least gained some basic experience and have seen some of the theories that I mentioned in this essay in action with my younger sister. To me the course of development is both continuous and discontinuous depending on how each child develops. Learning about these theories and finding out more information about the many courses or just one course of development made me see that there are many courses of development based on the many developmental theories and stages each child goes through in life. Lastly I discovered that both genetic and environmental factors can affect children greatly in the present as well as later on in life. As I said earlier if a child is brought up in a negative environment then that will definitely affect the children emotionally as well psychologically.ReferencesContinuity and Discontinuity in Development http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_development Oswald, Angela. Child Development Stages versus Continuous Development. Retrieved from http//www.sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.php? type=docid=7920.. Cabi816, Greenville, SC. Teen Ink. Genetic Versus the Environment and their Effects on the Development. Retrieved from http//www.teenink.com/opinion/current_events_politics/article/155563/Geneti cs-V-The-Environment-And-Their-Effects-On-Development/ McLeod, Saul. (Published 2009, Updated 2012). Simply Psychology. Jean Piaget. Retrieved from http//www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html Hildebrand, Verna and Hearron, F. Patricia. point Young Children. Sixth Edition. (1999). Merrill, an imprint of Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle, NewJersey and Columbus, Ohio. Chapter 2 Knowing Children as a Basis for Guidance. Speed of Development.

A Proposal to Research the Liquid Remains After Resomation Essay Example for Free

A Proposal to Research the Liquid Remains After Resomation EssayResomation is an alternative to cremation that helps the funeral industry and cuts down hydrargyrum emissions. The impertinent technique of disposing a corpse is still not welcomed into potentiality clients mind frame do to the lack of information on the left over watery once resomation is realised. I propose more than interrogation to be done on the transparent left behind and that the data collected to be sh atomic number 18d with the general public. The research provide be conducted at bottom two days and six months with the result being a force release of our findings. I am asking for 1,388,800 dollars to fund this research and two old age and six months to complete the project. With our findings clientele will be more aware of resomation and the components of the suave that remains later on completion.IntroductionCremation accounts for 34.34 percent of all corpse disposal in the United alleges in 2006 and is expected to rise to 58.85 percent by 2025 (CANA, 2008). Unfortunately, in the puzzle out of cremation, thither are considerable amounts of hydrargyrum emissions into the atmosphere. Approximately 320 pounds of mercury is released by U.S. crematoriums each year (Reindl, 2008). Because of the high levels of mercury dispersed by U.S. crematoriums it is necessary for more research to be done on resomation as an alternative to cremation.This document is proposing more research to be done on resomations environmental aspects subsequently the resomation extremity. This proposal will include the following information. The background on cremation, mercury and resomation will be covered, followed by my qualifications and project description.BackgroundSince the 1870s cremation has been a centre of disposing a human body in the United States. However, cremation only accounted for 5 percent of all passions until 1972 when the market started to gain popularity (Davis and Mates , Page 102). As stated in the introduction, in 2006 cremation accounted for 34.34 percent of all dispositions and is expected to increase to 58.85 percent by 2025 (CANA, 2008).With the interest in cremation growing, so is the concern of mercury emissions due to the dental fillings of the departed during cremation. The dental work has been accounting for approximately 320 pounds of mercury into the atmosphere. The amount of mercury emitted is estimated to rise even higher as more families are choosing cremation (Reindle, 2008). There are many questions regarding how to handle the mercury situation respectfully, safely and environmentally.Resomation is a new technique being used in 6 states in the U.S.(ABC News, 2011). The new process is beneficial to the funeral industry because of its fuel efficiency (Resomation LTD). This new technique can help the funeral industry make more profit along with reducing mercury emissions, that is if potential consumers choose resomation.Resomation s till sets potential consumers ill at ease. The potential clientele are still hesitant to use the new method of disposition because of the liquids leftover after the process is finished (NYTimes). Some fear that the liquids are harmful for the environment because there shed been few studies on the topic.The problem is potential clientele are reluctant to use resomation for fear that the liquid could be detrimental to the environment and to themselves (TIME). Research needs to be done so that there is more information for the general public about resomation. With this information easy potential consumers will choose resomation over cremation.QualificationsI am a immature in the College of Public Health and Human Sciences at Oregon state University, majoring in Human Development and Family Sciences with a minor in Biology. I have taken several classes related to chemical compounds, environmental studies and the human body. These courses will aid me in gathering research along with o ther scientists on my team. leading and organization are traits I posses and have shown in my previous work experiences.In my experience as a funeral directors assistant I was able to talk about with families about the reasons they decided to not choose resomation. From my conversations with them I found that the overall concern was due to the liquefying process. Because of this experience in my life I feel same(p) I can understand the concern of the general public.Project DescriptionThe purpose of this proposal is to conduct research revolving around the remaining liquid after the resomation process is completed. The results found in the research will give us information on whether the remaining liquid is environmentally safe or unsafe.ObjectivesIn our research I will achieve the following goals* sink the exact chemical makeup of the remaining liquid left after resomation has taken place.* Determine if the liquid is environmentally safe.* Complete a press release on the finding s.MethodologyMy plan for achieving the goals discussed in the previous section is by testing the liquid of donated human corpses after resomation has taken place. We plan on using 150 donated corpses to conduct the research study. one time the bodies have been resomated we will collect five samples of the liquid remains to be tested later on in the study.Testing the liquid will be done by using mass spectroscopic analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance. Mass spectrometry is a technique used for separating and identifying molecules based on mass. This technique will help fructify the molecules in the liquid and will be able to identify if any of the deceased DNA is present (Genetics, 2003).Nuclear magnetic resonance is used to determine the structure of new natural and synthetic compounds, the purity of send compounds and its chemical reaction with the other compounds in the solution (Medical Discoveries, 1997). These two tools are able to determine chemical structures so that an accurate description of the liquids makeup can be found. With these instruments at hand we can determine the chemical compounds of the liquid down to its basic chemical elements.Once we have the chemical make-up of the liquid, we will cast down to start looking at their reactions to the environment and if it is harmful. When it is determined that the material contained in the liquid is harmful or not harmful, we will begin work on a journal article that states our findings. After the journal article is finished we will create a press release so that our findings can be made known to the media.To respect the families of those who donated their bodies, we wish to return the ashes to them. This will not be a grand speak to to the project for it is just sending the remains to their familys homes.EvaluationTracking the experiments progress will be done by having the scientists and graduate students move in the study keep journals of their progress each day. This way of tracking will help determine if we are moving at a long-play or faster pace than what we are scheduled.Check points throughout the study will also be a way to evaluate our progress. An example of a check point would be to have all the samples of the remaining liquid collected by October of 2012. These check points will help the study stay on track and also give us small goals to achieve throughout the process.Determining if the project is successful or unsuccessful relies on if we can determine the chemicals present in the liquid. The success is not necessarily determined by if the liquids are environmentally safe. Whether our findings say it safe or unsafe we will be learning more about resomation which is a success because little is known about the process.ScheduleThe set schedule for the entire project is two years and six months, starting January of 2012. I will need seven months to find a location for the project to take place and for the equipment to be installed. Also within those seven m onths I intend to employ six graduate students and three scientists to work alongside me. After the completion of the seven months we will begin on the process of disposing of the donated bodies and taking samples of the remaining liquid. The course of disposing of the 150 human bodies will be given three months for completion, October of 2012.After all the samples are collected we will begin on using mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance to determine the chemical compounds of the liquid. This part of the study must be completed by March of 2013. Once the data is collect from the samples we will need two months to determine if the compounds are environmentally friendly, May 2013.By the June of 2013 we will begin work on a journal article and have it completed by July of 2014. After the article is finished we will have a press release on our findings. The press release should be completed by August of 2014 and sent into the public.BudgetThe budget for this project is broke n down as follows.* 400,000 dollars for a resomation chamber (Resomation Ltd.)* 68,800 dollars for a mass spectrometer (Labx)* 20,000 dollars for a nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer (Labx)* 800,000 dollars for employment of workers* 150,000 dollars for facility coverage for two years and six months* 100,000 for lab equipmentI need 1,388,800 dollars to complete this project. I will need 538,800 dollars immediately to begin purchasing the equipment and securing a location. The rest of the 850,000 can be given in increments throughout the course of the project.ConclusionMore research needs to be done on resomation so that more information is available to potential clientele. With this research I plan to determine the exact chemical makeup of the remaining liquid left after resomation has taken place and its environmental risks. After the project is complete, a press release will be created to inform the general public of our findings.With this associations involvement in our rese arch we can increase the use of resomation by the potential clientele. Resomation will financially benefit the funeral industry overtime more so than cremation (Rindle, 2008). The process of resomation is more cost effective for the funeral industry than cremation because it uses fewer resources, such as fuel.Not only does resomation help this association, but it also helps cut down on mercury emissions caused by cremation. With your financing of my project, potential clientele will begin to choose resomation over cremation. This new process will be benefitting both the National Funeral Directors connector and the environment. whole kit and caboodle CitedAquamation, a Form of Cremation Better for the Environment? TIME. Breaking News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, photo, Tech Reviews TIME.com. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. http//www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2022206,00.html. About CANA. Cremation Association of spousal relationship America (CANA). Cremation Association of North America, 2000. Web. 07 Nov. 2011. http//www.cremationassociation.org/?page=AboutCANA. Davies, Douglas James., and Lewis H. Mates. CANA. Encyclopedia of Cremation. Aldershot, England Ashgate, 2005. Print. Klotz, Irene. Resomation Green Alternative to Cremation or Burial After Funeral, to Be Offered in Florida ABC News. ABCNews.com Daily News, Breaking News and Video Broadcasts ABC News. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. http//abcnews.go.com/Technology/resomation-green-alternative-cremation-burial-funeral-offered-florida/ account statement?id=14457825. Konigsberg, Ruth Davis. Resomation NYTimes.com. The New York Times Breaking News, World News Multimedia. 13 Dec. 2009. Web. 02 Dec. 2011.http//query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9504E1DD1E39F930A25751C1A96F9C8B63. nuclear magnetic resonance Systems, New and Used NMR Spectrometers For Sale. LabX New and Used Laboratory Equipment For Sale, Auctions, Wanted. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. http//www.labx.com/v2/newad.cfm?catid=18. Reindl, John. S ummary of References on Mercury Emissions from Crematoria. Tech. 2008. Web. 7 Nov. 2011. http//www.ejnet.org/crematoria/reindl.pdf. Robinson, Richard. Mass Spectrometry. Genetics. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. 2 Dec. 2011 http//www.encyclopedia.com. The Resomation Process. Resomation Home. Web. 07 Nov. 2011. http//www.resomation.com/index_files/Page347.htm. X-ray Crystallography. Medical Discoveries. 1997. Encyclopedia.com. 2 Dec. 2011 http//www.encyclopedia.com.BibliographyAbout CANA. Cremation Association of North America (CANA). Cremation Association of North America, 2000. Web. 07 Nov. 2011. http//www.cremationassociation.org/?page=AboutCANA. Age Data. Census Bureau Home Page. 2010. Web. 07 Nov. 2011. http//www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/age/general-age.html. Ashes to Ashes Comparative Law regarding Survivors Disputes concerning Cremation and Cremated Remains. Oregon State University Libraries. Web. 07 Nov. 2011. http//mw8xt6bj7r.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004 . Aquamation, a Form of Cremation Better for the Environment? TIME. Breaking News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, Video, Tech Reviews TIME.com. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. http//www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2022206,00.html. Davies, Douglas James., and Lewis H. Mates. CANA. Encyclopedia of Cremation. Aldershot, England Ashgate, 2005. Print. Exit Strategies Green Funerals. The Economist (US) 18 Sept. 2010. Print. Klotz, Irene. Resomation Green Alternative to Cremation or Burial After Funeral, to Be Offered in Florida ABC News. ABCNews.com Daily News, Breaking News and Video Broadcasts ABC News. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. http//abcnews.go.com/Technology/resomation-green-alternative-cremation-burial-funeral-offered-florida/story?id=14457825.

Nazi Germany in the 1930s Essay Example for Free

Nazi Ger umteen in the 1930s EssayJews faced several problems that made life story real difficult and strenuous during the mid-1930s. People who were Jewish were often persecuted and interact as the worst class of people when it comes to fond hierarchy. Through bug out this time, there were m each things happening to Germany that were of and related to government, which destroyed the ability for a Jewish citizen to have a positive life. There were several hardships and problems faced by Jews regarding emigration out of Europe.Also, Jewish people during this time period suffered from government and social ridicule, losing many rights and necessities that should be given to every human being upon birth. During the mid-1930s, Germany tried to persecute Jews by forcing their emigration from the country. This was caused by the anti-Semitic legislation in Germany. Jews were non allowed to take with them any more than $4 and very few belongings. Along with that, trying to build t o another country was nearly impossible.With the terrible great depression that was occurring, other countries were afraid that immigrants would threaten local job opportunities, thus emigration out of Germany was very difficult for Jews (Obstacles to Immigration). All the documents required to leave the country were also nearly impossible to obtain. Jews often called these Bureaucratic Hurdles. These were up to 15 documents that could include 5 visa applications, 2 local citizen sponsorships, tax and financial documents, police conduct documents and evaluations, a physical, and proof of a booked passage to the innovative country(Documents Required to amaze a Visa).According to Ann Jacobson , when she emigrated out of Austria, when it became part of the Reich, her father was only allowed to take $80 and they had extreme difficulty finding all the documents required to move ( flight of stairs From the Reich). This was extremely fortunate for her to be able to get the opportunity to move, because for most Jews, obtaining such documents was nearly impossible. Overall, trying to emigrate out of a Nazi assiduous territory in the mid-1930s was almost impossible, due to the legal and social restrictions posed by people and the government.Jewish lifestyle was often full of being discriminated against and mistreatment by non-Jewish citizens and government affiliated people during this time period. Many Jewish people lost their jobs and children were taken from schools (Flight from the Reich). With the little things available for Jews to take with them due to confiscation and newfound poverty, Jews were figuratively chased out of Germany by Nazis (1938 Propaganda Poster). Poverty is caused by lack of work, and Jews definitely were obligate into poverty. An example of somebody being forced out of their job was Elisabeth Abegg.She was a teacher who was forced out of the position in 1933 for being of the Jewish religion (Rescue and Resistance 1). With no m unitaryy, jo bs, or try for for help from others, anybody would have struggled for shear survival. That is what these Jews were being denied during this time. They were forced out of a normal lifestyle, and constantly had to be looking over their shoulders for the government. A citizen in any country should never feel threatened or attacked by their own government. For the Jews trying to survive in this time period, the case was practically opposite.The government was brutal, and forcibly making Jewish people evacuate the country, yet made immigration to other countries nearly impossible. This is what made life so difficult for Jews during this time period. last there was an establishing of the Nuremburg Laws, which caused Jews to lose citizen rights in Germany (Jews in Nazi Germany 1). Some people tried to resist the movement, but were quickly dealt with. In 1933, Karl Barth opposed pro-Nazis and based his underground on his biblical theology (Rescue and Resistance 11). He was expelled from G ermany for his unruly behavior in 1935.When people got on boats to sail to new countries, the exit of Europe did not always guarantee complete freedom from the Reich. If Jews were to get on a Germany controlled ship, they were technically on German land wherever they were. It was best to get on an American controlled ship, so that Germans had no control over what happened to it or its passengers while in operation (Flight from the Reich). If an emigrant was on a German controlled ship, equal the St. Louis, problems could have occurred. This boat consisted to 900 or more people trying to go to Cuba.The government in Germany knew that Cuba had changed its mind about accepting these people yet they did not inform the passengers. When the boat got to Cuba, it was turned around with only 28 people admitted onto the island . The rest were sent hold to Europe. Only half of those people sent back ended up surviving through the Holocaust (Voyage of the St. Louis). With the difficulty posed by the inability to obtain documents, and the process it actually took to get to a new country, emigration for Germans during this time period was seemingly impossible.Altogether, this time period was probably the most difficult time for a certain persecuted group of people to live. They were handle with utmost disrespect and extremely persecuted. Even though I am not a Jew myself, I feel extreme remorse for the Jews during this time period. universe able to relate to what these people went through is nearly impossible for anybody who would ever try to give themselves the task. These people are an example of how little wrong one must do in society to be treated in the most malicious of ways.The human race itself will always be the guide factor in the prevention of development, and this time period demonstrates this more than most others. When humans do and think like the Nazis did in the mid-1930s is when our race will tip over ultimate failure. People do not deserve to be pers ecuted or mistreated, unless it is an earned treatment for negative behavior or acts. These Jews did nothing wrong, yet were treated worse by the Reich than any other people on the planet at the time.When looking for something to take away from this, one could take away the noesis to know how destructive a simple persecution could become. It is not wise to single out any one group of people in any social context, due to the harmful global impacts made when this happened to the Jews. Humans are all born equally, and unfortunately are unable to treat each other as such. People should always be treated and given the title and rights they were born with. That title is a human being.

Analyse Evidence For Case Linkage In Criminal Profiling Psychology Essay

Analyse Evidence For Case Linkage In Criminal Profiling Psychology EssayFor thousands of years inferences of a persons characteristics from their thoughts, motives, and actions view been made (Canter Alison, 1997) although the practise of these inferences to criminal investigations was setoff done in the 1970s by the FBI (Egger, 1999). Offender profile, now known as demeanoral investigative advice, is the movement of providing inferences of likely wrongdoer characteristics based on offense scene learning (Canter Alison, 1999).Case gene gene gene connectiveage is now to a greater extent comm only when known as physical contactage depth psychology which is the process of identifying whether or non a series of crimes have been committed by the same offender using crime scene doingss (Hazelwood Warren, 2003). Case linkage produces standardized fact present in legal contingencys so that offenders can be charged with numerous umbrages (Ormerod, 1999). Case linkage can als o each(prenominal)ow each relevant crime scene knowledge to be pooled thus making the use of investigative resources more efficient (Grubin, Kelly, Burnsden, 2001).The practices of eggshell linkage and offender profiling have everywherelapping as well as separate supposals. Case linkage and offender profiling two use theories from personality psychology and the assumption underlying the practices of both offender profiling and case linkage is union (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Regarding offender profiling, individuals need to be consistent in their actions for at that place to be analogy associations surrounded by an individuals conduct and characteristics (Mokros Alison, 2002). In reference to case linkage, this organic structure refers to the offender exhibiting standardized demeanours each time he or she offends (Canter, 1995 Grubin et al., 2001 Woodhams, Hollin, Bull, 2007). If offenders were not consistent in their offending behaviour, then it would not be possible to determine which single offender committed the crimes on the basis of their behavioural similarity. An additional assumption underlying the practice of offender profiling is homology (Alison, Bennell, Mokros, Ormerod, 2002). This assumption states that offenders who commit crimes in a similar style will have similar background characteristics (Woodhams Toye, 2007). wherefore, offenders who have antithetic crime scene behaviour will have diametrical characteristics. According to Woodhams and Toye (2007) an additional assumption underlying the practice of case linkage is behavioural distinctiveness. This assumption refers to the actions of an individual serial offender being opposite to other offenders committing similar crimes.This paper will now discuss the endorse for the assumptions underlying the practices of case linkage and offender profiling. Then methods to combat the problems of the assumptions underlying the practices of case linkage and offender profiling will be presented. Finally, a conclusion will be reached as to whether in that location is enough evidence to plunk for the assumptions underlying the practices of case linkage and offender profiling to produce valid and useful results.Case linkage and offender profiling Behavioural consentBehavioural consistency is an assumption that underlies the practices of case linkage and offender profiling. Psychological research has delineate behavioural consistency as the repetition of particular aspects of behaviour if the same offender engages in the same type of offence again (Canter, 1995). Conversely, criminological research has defined behavioural consistency as the probability that an individual will repeatedly commit similar types of offences (Farrington, 1997). With regard to case linkage, it refers to the hypothesis that people ar consistent in their behaviour across agencys and the consistency assumption of offender profiling implies that the behaviour of one offender must be more consistent than the behaviour between all other offenders (Woodhams Toye, 2007).Behavioural consistency has been investigated by personality psychology studies and the hypothesis has been confirmed that people produce similar behaviour when they argon faced with spatial relations with similar psychological meaning to them (Mischel Shoda, 1995). There is also supporting evidence that offenders commit crime in a consistent manner. For example, Farrington and Lambert (1997) showed that offenders are consistent in the choice of crime type. Furthermore, offenders have been shown to be consistent in their behaviour across robbery (Woodhams Toye, 2007), arson (Santtila, Fritzon, Tamelander, 2005), burglary (Bennell Canter, 2002), homicide (Salfati Bateman, 2005), and sexual profane (Grubin et al., 2001).Therefore, on that point is evidence of the consistency assumption that underlies the practices of offender profiling and case linkage.Case linkage Behavioural consistency and dist inctivenessA necessity in proving consistency for investigative purposes is that an individuals behavioural variation must be less than others to be investigatively useful which Woodhams and Toye (2007) named distinctiveness. An example of this behavioural consistency is that Jack the offender al ways robs a bank at gun point which is 100 percent consistent. Although if the majority of other bank robbers also rob banks at gun point then it cannot be cogitate that Jack has committed the burglary in question. This consistency can be tested by predicting whether two crimes are committed by the same offender ( colligate) or by two disparate offenders (unlinked). Grubin et al. (2001) combined behavioural consistency and distinctiveness and found that linked crime and unlinked crimes are fit to be reliably deluxe using behavioural consistency and distinctiveness theory. Using this nest, research with robberies and burglaries by Bennell and Jones (2005), have also shown that linkage s tatus can be exactly predicted.Cervone and Shoda (1999) have researched personality psychology and found that people consistently exhibit individual differences on some personality traits in similar situations which provides support of case linkage (Bennell Canter, 2002). Although a review by Biesanz, West, and Kwok (2003) showed that personality psychologists and investigative psychologists examine consistency and distinctiveness differently. Shoda (1999) states that personality psychologists see individuals as demonstrating similar trait-related behaviour in different situations and although peoples behaviour does change in different situations they remain relatively stable compared to other people. For example, if person B is more aggressive in one situation than person A, then in different situations, person B will always exhibit more aggressive behaviour than person A although they both exhibit different levels of aggression in different situations. Although personality psych ologists are able to observe behaviour in highly controlled experimental conditions, the same cannot be done by investigative psychologists. Instead they use behavioural signatures, modus operandi, or psychological themes to determine the support of the behavioural distinctiveness and consistency assumptions which will be discussed next.Behavioural signatureHazelwood and Warren (2003) state that signatures are ritualised actions that are not necessary to commit or conceal the crime but are unique fantasies and drives of the offender to commit the crimes. These actions aid case linkage as they will be consistently exhibited in all of an offenders crimes (Hazelwood Warren, 2003). There is some evidence for the existence of signatures in serial homicide and rape (Hazelwood Warren, 2003), although there is no empirical evidence. One reason for this is that signatures may not be identified at crime scenes due to victim reactions or other situational factors (Douglas Munn, 1992). Furth ermore, Labuschagne (2006) states that foraging animals and body decomposition may disrupt the crime scene. Finally, it is difficult to separate the offenders behavioural signature from the modus operandi (Hazelwood Warren, 2003).From the evidence presented above, behavioural signatures may only exist in particular types of relatively rare crimes much(prenominal) as fantasy-driven, interpersonal, and serial violent crimes in limited situations. Therefore there is not enough evidence to support the use of behavioural signatures to determine behavioural consistency and distinctiveness as part of case linkage for all crimes.Modus Operandi (MO)Douglas and Munn (1992) state that the MO of offenders are the behaviours that an offender exhibits to commit the crime. Although greatly apply by police in the past (Douglas Munn, 1992), MOs can change over the course of a crime series (Hazelwood Warren, 2003) due to factors such as unavailability of victims, victim reactions, interruptions , education, experience, and maturation (Hazelwood Warren, 2003).Despite the above findings, depending on the MO behaviour being observed there are sufficient levels of distinctiveness and consistency to make case linkage possible beyond chance levels e.g. rape (Grubin et al., 2001) and commercialised robbery (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Bennell and Jones (2005) found that although an analysis of property stolen during serial burglaries had a moderate level of linking truth, an analysis of distances between crimes produced much higher accuracy scores. The authors found that the close-set(prenominal) together the burglaries, the more likely that they were committed by the same offender.Bennell and Canter (2002) have found that MOs which are brought to the scene by the offender such as where the offence took place (offender-driven) versus what was stolen (situation-driven), are the most stable and distinct. eyesight as some behaviours are more consistent and are therefore more accurat e at predicting case linkage allows analysts to be more efficient in only using the most consistent behaviours and also more accurate at predicting linkage (Woodhams Toye, 2007).Psychological themesConsistency can found in an offenders crimes despite differences in MO as when using the thematic commence consistency is defined at a more general level related to the function of the behaviour as opposed to discrete behaviours. For example, Salfati and Bateman (2005) state that when an offender cuts or tortures the victim, this behaviour advises an expressive theme and the murder was part of an emotionally fuelled assault. Whereas when the victim is sexually assaulted or the body is posed, this behaviour demonstrates an instrumental theme and the aim of the murder was to strike sexual gratification or something else beyond the murder.The research into consistency and distinctiveness regarding psychological themes is promising (Salfati Bateman, 2005) although when more stringent cri teria to assign crimes to predominant themes, the results are not as convincing (Bateman Salfati, 2007).Woodhams et al. (2007) have argued that measuring consistency using the psychological themes approach to case linkage has limited use when offenders are not able to be easily categorised into predominant themes. The authors also state that this approach may be too general to be used for identifying different offenders although it can be argued that this depends on the type of crime as it may be more applicable for rare crimes compared to more common crimes.Even though there is evidence that offenders crime series demonstrate behavioural distinctiveness and consistency as discussed above, crime analysts and police investigators may not be able to link crimes. For example, Canter et al. (1991) state that it is difficult to correctly identify crime scene behaviours appropriate for case linkage as attention may focus on behaviours that are not distinct or not stably exhibited.Methods to combat the problems of case linkageCluster analysis, across-crime similarity coefficients, logistical lapsing analysis, and Receiver run Characteristic (ROC) analysis are analytical strategies employed to combat the problems of the assumptions underlying the practice of case linkage. Each of these strategies will be detailed next.Cluster analysisCluster analysis places the crimes on a plot where the shorter the distance between plots the greater the similarity there is between the crimes (Green, Booth, Biderman, 1976). The closer the crimes are together the more likely they are to be linked. The study by Green et al. (1976) found this analytical approach to be highly successful at linking the crimes of three burglars. Although there are some drawbacks to this method as it is not yet determined as to what specific distance suggests that the crimes are linked.Across-crime similarity coefficientsWoodhams and Toye (2007) state that across-crime similarity coefficients specify t he degree of behavioural distinctiveness and consistency between two crimes. Woodhams and Toye (2007) used the Jaccard coefficients to see whether pairs of robbery crimes were linked based on the similarity of offence behaviours. Seeing as this coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, a large coefficient reflects a greater amount of across-crime similarity. In relation to the assumptions underlying the practice of case linkage, small similarity coefficients associated with different offender crimes suggests behavioural distinctiveness. Conversely, large similarity coefficients are associated with same offender crimes suggests consistency. Woodhams and Toye (2007) found that compared with unlinked crime pairs, linked pairs had greater similarity in behaviour exhibited between offences committed by the same criminal than between offences committed by different offenders. In addition, the difference between linked and unlinked crimes was significant for overall and indoors each behaviour. Thes e findings support the offender behavioural consistency hypothesis underlying the practices of case linkage as well as offender profiling.Logistic regression analysisBennell and Canter (2002) state that logistic regression analysis can be used to produce predicted probabilities that crime pairs are linked. This is done by cartel the values of predictor variables such as across-crime similarity scores related to entry method, characteristics of the target, and the property stolen. Woodhams and Toye (2007) used logistic regression analysis to determine whether robberies were linked and produced accurate linking decisions.Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysisThe measures of linking accuracy described above are threshold specific in that the accuracy score is only relevant when a specific decision threshold is used. To counter this problem, ROC analysis can be used in addition to these measures (Woodhams Toye, 2007). ROC analysis quantifies the level of linking accuracy ass ociated with lining cues (inter-offence distance) or case linkage tools (e.g., cluster analysis, across-crime similarity coefficients, and logistic regression analysis). This method is not affected by the decision threshold that was used to determine whether or not the crimes were linked.Studies using ROC analysis have set suitable decision thresholds for linking purposes as well as producing valid measures of linking accuracy (e.g., Bennell Jones, 2005) demonstrating that methods such as logistic regression used in conjunction with ROC analysis can accurately link serial crimes.Offender profiling HomologyDespite different methods of profiling being multi-disciplinary and overlapping, the approaches can be segregated into three broad categories clinical practitioner, statistical, and criminal investigative (Wilson, Lincoln, Kocsis, 1997). The FBI model is a criminal investigative approach and it is the most common. It is used in USA, Canada, Australia, UK, Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Holland amongst others. The work of Babcock, Boon, and Britton (Copson, Babcock, Boon, Britton, 1997) is an example of the clinical approach whereas David Canters (Canter Heritage, 1990) work is representative of the statistical approach.In the past, the FBI model has been criticised for being based upon faith and intuition rather than fact and solid methodology which lacks the element of psychological theory (Canter Alison, 1999). Now it takes more of a scientific approach by publish empirical findings. The clinical practitioner approach emphasises its use of psychological, psychiatric, clinical, or mental health research or knowledge. Finally, the statistical approach infers psychological processes and characteristics of offenders using the multivariate analysis of behaviour at the crime scene as well as other crime scene information (Canter Alison, 1999).Pinizzotto and Finkel (1990) state that professional profilers first assess the type of criminal act with reference to individuals who have committed similar acts previously. Then they analyze the crime scene, the victims background, and any possible suspects. Next profilers cause the possible motivations of all the individuals involved. Finally, a description of the offender is created from the characteristics identified with such a psychological disposition.Homology is an assumption that underlies the practice of offender profiling and suggests that similar offence styles are associated with similar background characteristics (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Thus offenders with similar offence behaviours have similar background characteristics. The complex relationships between a given action and a given characteristic are made to profile clusters of background features from crime scene actions to develop a psychological picture of the suspect (Alison et al., 2002). These relationships involve multivariate forms of prediction in which specific sets of actions are linked to specific sets of characterist ics. Although the results of these analyses are not convincing when tested (Alison, 2002).Alison et al. (2002) state that current offender profiling methods intrust on an outdated understanding of personality and the trait approach. Alison et al. (2002) found that the homology assumption is not supported as it uses global traits, or broad personality types, which are unlikely to be useful in predicting criminal behaviour. These traditional personality trait theories suggest that all offenders behaviours are affected in predictable ways (deterministic) and that behaviour remains stable despite different environmental influences (nonsituationist) (Alison et al., 2002). Furthermore, Mischel and Peake (1982) demonstrated that global trait theories fail to allow predictions of behaviour across specific situations.Alison et al. (2002) suggest that it is unlikely that the classification of offenders into broad personality types would enable the profiler to relate clusters of sociodemograp hic characteristics to different types. Profilers often make inferences about offender characteristics that are not appropriate for a psychological definition e.g. age, ethnicity, marital status, gender, degree of sexual maturity, and possible reactions to police questioning (Alison et al. 2002).Woodhams and Toye (2007) tested the homology assumption by identifying three different styles of robbery behaviour and investigated whether commercial robbers with different offence behaviour styles were significantly different to each another on ethnicity, employment, previous convictions, age, and distance to crime. No significant differences were found which suggests no support for the homology assumption.The homology assumption has also been investigated using regression analyses to determine if certain offence behaviours can reliably predict offender characteristics although there has been little support found for the homology assumption (Tonkin, Bond, Woodhams, 2009). For example, Mok ros and Alison (2002) investigated rapists and defined homology as a positive linear relationship between the similarities of crime scene actions and similarities in background characteristics of the offenders. The researchers investigated whether similarity in personal characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, age, employment status, marital status, criminal record, and education) was correlated with similarity in offence behaviour. No linear relationships were observed with similarity in behaviour. Therefore there was no evidence found for the homology assumption.Despite this lack of evidence for the homology assumption, there has been success with homicide (Salfati Canter, 1999), burglary, assault, robbery, actual bodily harm and violent disorder (Farrington Lambert, 2000), and sexual assault (Santtila, Ritvanen, Mokros, 2004) offences at determining offender characteristics from crime scene behaviour.In summary, using bivariate predictive analyses, relationships between specific char acteristics and actions have been found (Aitken et al., 1996) although it has been argued that these are simplistic compared to the profiles that have been produced over the years (e.g. Pinizzotto Finkel, 1990). Alison et al. (2002) state that a direct link between offence behaviour and offender characteristics is unlikely to exist because of the influence of the situation effecting offence behaviour. In addition, the authors state that profilers often make inferences regarding offender characteristics (e.g., gender, ethnicity, and age) from behaviour that is not appropriate according to Bem and Allens (1974) personality theory. Therefore, the research into the homology assumption has been less accessary (Woodhams Toye, 2007). Interestingly, there have been many reviews of profiling based on the opinions of detectives about the usefulness of the advice that they received, the overall opinion was that the advice was of use (Woodhams Toye, 2007).Methods to combat the problems of o ffender profiling and case linkageA method to combat the problems of the assumptions underlying the practice of offender profiling and case linkage is for police forces to enter crime scene information (including motivational and behavioural characteristics) into databases. The Violent Crime Case linkage System (ViCLAS Collins, Johnson, Choy, Davidson, Mackay, 1998) is the most popular of the databases and was first used by the Royal Canadian attach Police to profile offenders and identify serial offenders. This system can record 200 items of information from each crime scene which analysts can search when a new crime is committed. This system is widely used in the UK and assists offender profiling as well as case linkage by providing a way to manage the mass of information although there is little research on its effectiveness.Beauregard (2005) states sharing information between investigators and researchers is a way to develop offender profiling as it standardises data reliabili ty. Alison et al. (2004) state that this pragmatic profiling (sharing information, investigative advice, and profiles) is the way forward for profiling and case linkage. Yokota, Fujita, Watanabe, Yoshimoto, and Wachi (2007) have even developed a computerised profiling system that takes in the details of an offence and produces the offender characteristics.Finally, Alison et al. (2002) suggest that a theoretical framework that emphasizes the importance of Person X Situation interactions in generating behaviour may be more productive. Recent research by Goodwill and Alison (2007) has let ind these aspects into predictive analysis of offender characteristics from crime scene information and stated that the relationship between offender characteristics and the crime scene may be influenced by other aspects of the crime. Therefore, using the contemporary trait perspective would include contextual details that effect behaviour and thus make inferences from crime scene behaviours more vali d and useful.ConclusionIn summary, there is evidence play up problems with the consistency, homology, and behavioural distinctiveness assumptions underlying the practices of offender profiling and case linkage. Regarding offender profiling, ignoring contextual and situational variables of offending makes homology and consistency unreliable and possibly invalid. The simple behaviour and characteristics approach to offender profiling is not adequate. It may be argued that a significant component of offender profiling is based on intuition rather than scientific research (Pinizzotto Finkel, 1990). On conclusion of the evidence for homology, the practice of offender profiling does not include current psychological theory and therefore would not be appropriate for use in court as expert witness evidence. The homology assumption has not seen as much research as the behavioural consistency and distinctiveness assumptions. There is greater support for the consistency and distinctiveness a ssumptions underlying the practice of case linkage when additional measures are used to improve rigourousness and usefulness.Methods to improve the practices of case linkage and offender profiling include the use of databases, pragmatic profiling, and automation. Methods to improve case linkage include cluster analysis, across-crime similarity coefficients, and logistic regression analysis. These analytical techniques improve the practices of case linkage and offender profiling as they are able to accurately handle large amounts of data. The drawback to many of these approaches is that they do not specifically state what probability level should be used to determine whether or not crimes and behaviours are linked. These measures of linking accuracy are threshold specific in that the accuracy score can only relevant when a specific decision threshold is used. To counter this flaw, ROC analysis has proven to accurately link crimes when used in conjunction with these methods.It is imp ortant to have valid assumptions underlying the practices of case linkage and offender profiling as incorrect advice could mislead a police investigation and be costly in financial and human terms. Greater research is desperately needed into the effectiveness of the use of databases to assist case linkage and offender profiling. These databases are in widespread use despite a lack of research on their effectiveness.Word Count 3814

Structural and Optical Properties of Pulsed Laser

Structural and Optical Properties of Pulsed LaserStructural and Optical Properties of Pulsed Laser Deposited ZnO/TiO2 and TiO2/ZnO Thin FilmsR. K. Jain, Praveen K. JainAbstract. ZnO/TiO2 and TiO2/ZnO dainty films have been deposited on single crystal Si (100) substratum using pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique in order to improve structural and optical properties of ZnO and TiO2 thin films. It was observed that the deposition of TiO2 film foregoing to ZnO, exhibited higher crystallinity along (002) diffraction peak, weakened compressive strain and stress and thereby rendering better optical properties as compargond to ZnO films deposited directly on Si substratums. On the different hand, TiO2 thin film deposited on Si substrate exhibited pure anatase phase while the use of ZnO dampen was found to improve the crystallinity of TiO2 thin film. The photoluminescence spectra showed that TiO2 and ZnO caramel layers deepen ultraviolet radiation illumination emissions of the Zn O and TiO2 thin films to a larger extent, respectively.Keywords ZnO, TiO2, Optical properties, PhotoluminescencePACS 78.66.Hf, 78.55.Et, 68.37.PsIntroductionZnO is suitable for the production of light emitting devices and a promising basisdidate for the next generation of electronic devices overdue to its wide band fracture (3.37 eV) and large exciton binding energy (60 meV)1. ZnO thin films play an important role in solid-state display devices, solar cells and excite acoustic waves at microwave frequencies2. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is one of the most important semiconductors with high photocatalytic activity, non-toxicity, stability in aqueous solution, and is relatively inexpensive. The excellent photocatalytic property of TiO2 is due to its wide band gap and long lifetime of photogenerated holes and electrons 3-4. It has been reported that the deposition of ZnO or TiO2 thin films on Si substrates at elevated temperature leads to increase in oxygen vacancies as the pop out Si a toms easily capture oxygen atom from ZnO or TiO2, which deteriorates the quality of the these films 5. So it is required to improve various properties of ZnO and TiO2 films for their capableness applications. In the present study, a systematic investigation has been performed in order to improve the structural and optical properties of these films using pilot film layers. ZnO and TiO2 are chosen as a buffer layer material on the basis of following considerations (a) Both are wide-band-gap materials, (b) twain exhibit high chemical and thermal stability, (c) both have high refractive indices, high transmittance in the visible region and intense absorption in the ultraviolet band and (d) both are low cost material.EXPERIMENTAL DETAILsZnO and TiO2 thin films have been deposited on Si (100) substrate by ablating high purity (99.9%) ZnO and TiO2 ceramic target using pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique. The KrF excimer laser with wavelength of 248 nm was used for deposition. The pu lse repetition rate was 10Hz with laser fluence of about 23Jcm2. The target to substrate distance, working O2 ram and deposition temperature were kept 35mm, 50 mTorr, and 500C respectively. The thickness of the film and buffer layer was measured using cross section FE-SEM and found to be 200 nm and 50 nm, respectively. The phase and orientation of as-grown thin films were characterized by X-ray diffractometry (Bruker AXS D-8 Advance Diffarctometer) using CuK (=1.5407 ) radiation. The surface morphology was examined using atomic root for microscope (NTMDT NTEGRA model). Absorption spectra have been taken using UV-VIS-NIR spectrophotometer (Varian Cary 5000) and PL study was performed using photoluminescence spectrometer (Perkin Almer LS-55).RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONXRD pattern reveled that ZnO thin film grown on Si (100) substrate was preferentially oriented along the c-axis with a hexagonal wurtzite structure and the use of TiO2 buffer layer increases crystallinity along (002) diffra ction peak as shown in Figure 1. On the other hand, TiO2 thin film exhibit pure anatase phase and crystallinity was improved along (004) plane by inserting the ZnO buffer layer between substrate and TiO2 thin film. The improved crystallinity of thin film using buffer layer resulted from the mismatch in thermal expansion coefficient between ZnO and TiO2, which is smaller than that of between ZnO and Si or TiO2 and Si. The lattice mismatch between ZnO and Si (1 0 0) are 40%, whereas for their counterparts i.e. between ZnO and anatase-structured TiO2 are 14% 6. Therefore, the decrease of lattice mismatch is another flat coat for the improved crystallinity.The crystallite size of it calculated using Scherers formula is shown in Table 1. The strain along the c axis, zz is given by the following mateity 7 (1)where c is the lattice parameter of the strained ZnO films calculated from x-ray diffraction data and c0 is the unstrained lattice parameter of ZnO. The lattice mismatch between film and substrates can result in varying degrees of stress during the growth process of thin films. The results show that the compressive strain is present in all fabricated ZnO and TiO2 films, which is derived from lattice mismatch between substrates and films owing to increase in crystallite size, and the stress is decreased with the buffer layer. Figure 2 shows the AFM image of the deposited thin films. The grain size and average surface roughness increases when buffer layer is used due to enhancement in crystallinity.Figure 3 shows the room temperature PL spectra of ZnO and TiO2 thin films grown on Si substrate with and without buffer layer. The ZnO film deposited on Si (100) substrate exhibits strong ultraviolet emission peak along with weak greenyellow emission band. The ultraviolet emission of ZnO films is generally considered to be resulted from recombination of free exciton, whereas the green emission is mainly resulting from oxygen vacancies 8. The PL spectra of TiO2 thin film deposited on Si (100) substrate shows a long emission band from 390 to 450nm and there are two emission peaks superimposed on the broad emission band. The peak before 350nm (3.5eV) is ascribed to direct electron-hole recombination which should be equal to or slightly bigger than the TiO2band gap. The emission band from 390 to 450nm (corresponding to 3.22.75eV) arises from indirect band gap and surface recombination processes. Further observation indicates that there are two small peaks at the wavelength range from 460 to 500 nm. These PL signals are attributed to excitonic PL, which mainly result from surface oxygen vacancies and defects of the films. It is observed that ZnO thin film deposited on the TiO2 buffer layer shows stronger ultraviolet emission, as compared to ZnO thin film grown without buffer layer, with no visible emission. The absence of visible emission shows the defect free formation of film. Similarly, the use of ZnO buffer layer in addition removes the oxyg en defects emission peak of TiO2 thin film.The enhanced ultraviolet emission from ZnO thin films grown on TiO2 buffer layer is also probably connected with fluorescence sonorousness energy transfer(FRET) between ZnO and TiO2. After the excitation of electronhole pairs in TiO2 layer, the energy is easily transferred to ZnO films due to resonance effect 9 as a result, the band gap emission of ZnO is enhanced.From optical absorption spectra of ZnO and TiO2 thin films, It is observed that ultraviolet absorption edge of ZnO and TiO2 film with buffer layer has a red-shift, compared with ZnO and TiO2 thin film grown on bare Si (100) substrate. The value of direct band gap was found to be 3.29 and 3.24 eV for ZnO thin films grown on Si substrate without and with TiO2 buffer layer, respectively. On the other hand, the value of indirect band gap was found to be 3.24 and 3.19 eV for TiO2 thin films deposited on Si (100) substrate without and with ZnO buffer layer. The decrease in optical band gap of the films could be related to the enhancement in crystallite (grain) size leading to a smaller number of grain boundaries. On the other hand the compressed lattice will provide a wider band gap because of the increase repulsion between the oxygen 2p and the zinc 4s bands 10.CONCLUSISONZnO, TiO2, ZnO/TiO2 and TiO2/ZnO thin films on Si (100) substrate were prepared by pulsed laser deposition technique. XRD and AFM result express that the crystallinity of ZnO and TiO2 thin films are considerably improved by using TiO2 and ZnO buffer layer, respectively. Compared with PL of ZnO thin film, UV intensity of ZnO grown on TiO2 buffer layer has increased about two fold. Similarly, the ZnO buffer layer improved the UV emission of TiO2 thin film. The band gap of ZnO and TiO2 thin film grown on buffer layer found to decrease due to improved crystallinity.REFERENCES1 X. Teng, H. Fan, S. Pan, C. Ye, G. Li, Materials Letters 61 (2007) 201204.2 G. C. Yi, C. R. Wang, W. I. Park, Semicond. Sc i. Technol 20 (2005) S22.3X. Zhang, F. Zhang, K. Y. Chan, Material Chemistry Physics 97 (2006) 384.4A. B. Bodade, A. M. Bende, G. N. Chaudhari, Vaccum 82 (2008) 588.5 X. M. Fan, J. S. Lian, Z. X. Guo, H. J. Lu, Appl. Surf. Sci. 239 (2005) 1766 L. Xu, L. Shi , X. Li , utilize Surface Science 255 (2008) 323032347 H. C. Ong, A. X. E. Zhu, and G. T. Du, Applied Physics Letter 80 (2002) 941.8 Y. Zhang, B. Lin, Z. Fu, C. Liu, W. Han, Optical Materials 28 (2006) 1192.9 H.Y. Lin, Y. Y. Chou, C. L. Cheng, Y. F. Chen, Optical Express 15 (2007) 13832.10 R. Ghosh, D. Basak, S. Fujihara, Journal Applied Physics 96 (2004) 2689.

Students That Suffer With ADD Should NOT Be Placed In Specialized Class

Should Students that Suffer with ADD Be Placed in Specialized Classes?Many adults and caregivers do not k outright what Attention Deficit rowdiness (ADD) is and therefrom do not know how to properly care for those children. They believe that because their children have ADD, they will not be able to learn or succeed in a normal class with other normal students. The truth is that only 1 out of every 35 students with ADD need additional sustain outside of the classroom because they are not sufficiently learning in it(Cowan). Many teachers and parents believe that putting children with ADD in specialized classes will answer them to overcome their problems and become more successful in the classroom, but instead it will slow down their learning process, slow down their social achievement development, and it will also teach them that they lav use ADD as an excuse in other areas in their life(Child Development Institute).Attention Deficit Disorder is a disorder that is growing daily. In the 1920s only one out of every eight children, since then that number steadily increasing by the year, now one in every three children suffers from ADD(Cowan). Attention Deficit Disorder is a condition that causes people to have problems learning, behaving and even getting along with others. heap that are diagnosed with ADD usually struggle with one or more of these common symptoms. The first symptom is inattention, which is where they will have problems with focusing in on one thing at a time, or paying attention for any amount of time. People that are inattentive have serious problems with distractions. This can severely affect a student in a classroom. Every little thing that goes on in that classroom gets their attention, whether it is from a child talking, som... ...Parent and instructor Ratings of ADHD Symptoms Psychometric Properties in a Community-Based Sample Journal of Critical Child Psychology. 1991, Vol. 20, No. 3, Pages 245-253Kraus, Jeanne. Cory Stories A Kids B ook about Living with ADHD. Washington D.C. Magination Press. 2005Lavoie, Richard. Its So Much Work to be Your Friend. New York Touchstone. 2005Miller, Steve Dr. and Dr, Bernard Valman. Childrens Medical Guide. London DK. 2002Nadeau, Kathleen G, and Ellen B. Dixon. Learning to Slow Down and Pay Attention. Washington D.C. Magination Press. 2005Roseman, Bruce M.D., A Kid Just the likes of Me. New York The Berkley Publishing Group. 2001.Rotner, Shelly and Sheila Kelly Ed.D. The A.D.D. Book for Kids. Connecticut The Millbrook Press, Inc. 2000Umansky, Warren, Ph.D., and Barbara Steinberg Smalley. AD/HD Helping Your Child New York Warner Books Inc. 2003

Decay of the Roman Empire :: Ancient Rome Roman History

Decay of the papist EmpireEdward gibbon says the decay of Rome was inevitable. He writes that instead of meddling why the Roman Empire was destroyed, it is surprising that it subsisted so long. Gibbons argument comes down to four major arguments, divided into rulership, the abuse of Christianity, the expansion of the Barbarians, and finally the loss of the Roman military power. Edward Gibbon was one of the greatest English historians of the late 1700s. His father entered him in Magdalen College, University of Oxford but shortly after his enrollment in 1753 he resolved to convert to Roman Catholicism. Magdalen college only accepted Anglicans so he was barred from the school. His father then sent him to Switzerland, in care of a Calvinist pastor, who by Christmas, 1754, had reconciled him to Protestantism. After many years in Switzerland Gibbon returned home and decided to devote his life to scholarship and writing. In 1764, while visiting Rome, Gibbon decided to write about the cit ys history. His work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was one of his greatest works and despite the availability of red-hot factual data and a recognition of Gibbons western Bias, Decline and Fall is still read and enjoyed.In Gibbons first argument of divided rulership, he states that at that place simply was no central power in the Roman Empire. He writes, The throne of Constantinople was erected in the East while the West was still possessed by a series of emperors who held their residence in Italy and claimed their equal inheritance of the legions and provinces. This dangerous novelty impaired the strength, and fomented the vices, of a double reign. (2)As in any diachronic reference, when one divides their forces it weakens their strength. Gibbons makes this out to be a very important reason for the collapse of Rome. Even thought Constantinople was strong at this time, Gibbon points out that, The twisty court beheld, perhaps with pleasure the disgrace o f Rome, and the misfortunes of Italy.Edward Gibbons second argument, the abuse of Christianity, has much to do with the new virtues of society brought with the new religion. Gibbons states, The clergy successfully preached the doctrines of patience and pusillanimity the bustling virtues of society were discouraged. These active virtues of ambition and power were what made Rome great. The church and even the state, were distracted by religious factions, whose conflicts were sometimes bloody, and always implacable the direction of the Emperors were diverted from camps to synods.